Environmental Impacts Of Large Dams Environmental Sciences Essay

Environmental Impacts Of Large impedes Environmental Sciences EssayAbout 48000 wide dykes hasten been rein deplumated as a response to meet energy or body of weewee system need. Nearly half of the introductions rivers get subjugate at to the lowest degree adept plumping dam. One- ternion of the countries in the world rely on hydro actor for more(prenominal)(prenominal) than half their electrical energy supply, and massive dams generate 19% of electricity oerall. half the worlds large dams were make exclusively or primarily for irrigation, and some 30-40% of the 271 million hect ars irrigated worldwide rely on dams. at that place atomic number 18 dams on tight half of the rivers of the world ( tabularize 2.6). Six percent of the energy consumed in the world is produced from hydraulic power. Additionally, hydraulic power is in the second rank within the renewable energy sources and e precise division it increases 4 percent in the world. Dams whose height is mor e than 15 meters atomic number 18 referred to as big dams. Clearly, dams scum bag play an important role in meeting citizenrys needs (Table 2.7).Table 2.6. Distri thoion of Dams on the WorldContinentNumber of DamsPercentage of the recognise forthAfrica12692.7Asia3134065.8America898918.8Europe548011.5Australia5771.2Total47655100Source World burster on Dams, Dams and Development, 2000.There argon always two opinions slightly dams the supporters conversation about the economic benefits of irrigation, electricity generation, photo gorge control and water supply supply, the opp iodinnts spotlight the adverse impacts of rendering and impoverishment of nation, destruction of ecosystems and tiltery resources, and possibility of adventure if the dam breaks.Environmental Impacts of Large DamsLand and water ar ecologically linked in a intrinsic system called a watershed. From the smallest droplet to the mightiest river, water works to shape the land, taking with it depositar y and dissolved materials that drain to water stocks and, in c brook to cases, eventually to the sea. The river is a product of the land it rate of flows d sensation the geek of rock and land, the shape of the land, and the amount of vegetation atomic number 18 some of the factors that resolve the rivers shape, size and flow.When a large dam is cook uped, these ties between the land and the river be broken and the consequences are felt throughout the watershed, as well as by the web of flavour it supports. Some 40,000 large dams, most of which were construct in the past 50 years, now obstruct the worlds rivers. More than 400,000 square up kilometers an stove larger than Zimbabwe, need been inundated by reservoirs worldwide. The worlds largest impoundment, the 8,500 sq km Volta man-made lake behind Ghanas Akasombo Dam, flooded 4% of that nations land region. An internal survey of hydroelectric dam vomit ups by World wedge has shown that 58% of the dams were plan ned and built without any consideration of downstream impacts.Table 2.7. Countries having the Biggest Dams according to Size and take to the woodsRankCountries having Biggest DamsRanking with respect to Dams FunctionElectrical Energy body of water For Drinking and Daily UseIrrigationFlood Protection1. chinaChinaUSAChinaChina2.USAUSAUnited stateIndiaUSA3.IndiaCanadaSpainUSAjapan4.SpainJapanJapanKorea brazil-nut tree5.JapanSpainAustraliaSpainGer legion(predicate)6.CanadaItalyThailandTurkeyRomania7.KoreaFranceSouth AfricaJapanMexico8.TurkeyNorwegenBrazilMexicoKorea9.BrazilBrazilFranceS. AfricaCanada10FranceSwedishGermanyAlbaniaTurkeySource World Commission on Dams, Dams and Development, 2000.The following are a few serious environmental impacts of dams.(i) effectuate on River SystemsReducing the flow of water from a river changes the landscape it flows through, which in turn can affect the ecosystems flora and fauna. A dam holds sticker depositarys, especially the heavy gravel and cobbles. The river, deprived of its deposit load, seeks to recapture it by eroding the downstream channel and banks, undermining bridges and other(a) riverbank structures. Riverbeds are typically eroded by several meters within a ex of first closing a dam the damage can move for tens or hundreds of kilometers below a dam. Riverbed deepening lowers the groundwater table on a river, threatening vegetation and local wells in the flood plain and requiring crop irrigation in places where there was formerly no need.The depletion of riverbed gravels reduces home ground for many angle that spawn in the river bottom, and for invertebrates such as insects, molluscs and crustaceans. Changes in the physiologic habitat and hydrology of rivers are implicated in 93% of pertlywater fauna declines in North America.Before gimmick of the Aswan Dam in Egypt, the Nile River carried about 124 million gobs of fix to the sea each year, depositing some 10 million tons on the floodplain and delta. Today, 98% of that sediment remains behind the dam. The result has been a drop in begrime productivity. The Aswan Dam has also led to serious coastal erosion, a nonher caper stemming from the loss of sediments in a dammed river. other example of this problem is along the mouth of the Volta River in Ghana. Akosombo Dam has cut off the supply of sediment to the Volta Estuary, affecting also neighboring Togo and Benin, whose coasts are now being eaten off at a rate of 10-15 meters per year.(ii) Hydrological substancesDams change the pattern of the flow of a river, some(prenominal) reducing its general volume and changing its seasonal worker variations. The nature of the impacts ciphers on the design, break up and operation of the dam. All man of a rivers ecology can be impacted by changes to its flow.A rivers estuary, where fresh water meets the sea, is a separateicularly rich ecosystem. Some 80% of the worlds weight catch comes from these habitats, which depend on the volume and timing of nutrients and fresh water. The conversion of the flows reaching estuaries because of dams and diversions is a major cause of the precipitous decline of sea seekeries in the Gulf of Mexico, the Black and Caspian Seas, Californias San Francisco Bay, the Eastern Mediterranean and others.(iii) Changes to FloodingThe memory board of water in dams delays and reduces floods downstream. River and floodplain ecosystems are closely adapted to a rivers flooding cycle. The native plants and faunas depend on its variations for reproduction, hatching, migration and other important vivificationcycle storeys. genius-year floods deposit nutrients on the land, flush out backwater channels, and replenish wetlands. It is generally recognize by biologists that dams are the most destructive of the many abuses causing the fast dis betance of riverine species. About 20% of the worlds recognised 8,000 freshwater species are jeopardise with extinction.The first effect of a dam is to alter the pattern of disturbances that the plants and animals of a river hold back evolved for. numerous aquatic animals coordinate their reproductive cycles with annual flood seasons. Every flood is valuable in that it takes nutrients from the land and deposits them in the river, providing nutrition for the streams residents. Floods also provide shallow backwater areas on vegetated and shaded riversides the teen of many animals depend on these backwaters to protect them from large predators.As an example, a search on a certain river whitethorn only reproduce during April of all(prenominal) year so that its offspring ordain have abundant regimen and places to hide. If the flood never comes because a dam holds the river back (because population want the water for themselves), the offspring may be produced during a time when they cannot possibly survive. If the fish can wait until the next flood, which may be in July, its young depart be born during the wrong time of year, and allow have to con lam with the absence of their normal solid food supply and temperatures for which they are not prepared.Vegetation, too, depends upon these regular cycles of flood. Quite a great deal, people allow for decide that they can manifest no water at all and no flooding will occur. Or they may have built the dams specifically to stop flooding, so they can realise houses in the floodplains. When this happens, riparian vegetation, the vegetation bordering the river, changes forever.(iv) Removing SedimentAnother reason that riverbeds get going scoured and armored is that dams remove all the sediment from the river. It is graphic that the river, which is accustomed to carrying sediment and now has none, will pick up the sediment from the streambed below the dam. It is almost as though the river has been voracious of its sediment. As in everything else in nature, balance will be achieved one way or the other, often at the expense of one or more species.Th e sediment in a dammed river reaches the slow-moving reservoir to a higher place the dam and drops out, settling behind the dam. Each dam is engineered to withstand the force of a particular amount of water (this may be very very large). The dam is not engineered to withstand the additional force of tons of wet sediment pressing on the backside. The muddier the river, the faster this heap of sediment will build up. When it builds up very high, each the dam bursts, sidesplitting people and destroying settlements downstream, or the reservoirs water pours over the top of the dam.The river downstream of the dam will be kindred a dead river. It will not have a living river ecosystem filled with fish and birds. The water will be starved of nutrients and provide little or no habitat for animals. In addition, animals that once used the muddiness of the rivers water to conceal them from predators are now overly vulnerable to predation, and may quickly go extinct. A river with dams eventu ally becomes little more than a dead channel of water.(v) sharp-set the RiverDams hold back not only sediment, nevertheless also debris. The life of organisms (including fish) downstream depends on the constant feeding of the river with debris. This debris includes leaves, twigs, branches, and whole trees, as well as the organic remains of dead animals. Debris not only provides food, it provides hiding places for all sizes of animals and surfaces for phytoplankton and microorganisms to grow. Without flooding and without a healthy riparian zone, this debris will be scarce. Adding to the problem, although debris might come from the river in a higher place the dam, it is instead trapped in the reservoir, and never appears downstream. The bottom level of the food web is removed. All in all, the loss of sediment and debris heart the loss of both nutrients and habitat for most animals.(vi) Changing TemperatureTemperature is another problem. Rivers tend to be fairly homogenous in tempe rature. Reservoirs, on the other hand, are layered. They are warm at the top and cold at the bottom. If water is released downstream, it is usually released from the bottom of the dam, which means the water in the river is now c elder than it should be. Many macro-invertebrates depend on a regular cycle of temperatures throughout the year. When this is changed, their option is threatened.(vii) ErosionThe typical practices in a hydroelectric station are to release large amounts of water in powerful surges during the day in order to provide electricity when demand and prices are highest, and to cut down flow during the night in order to replenish reservoirs for the next day. The cyclical floods caused by this popular practice contribute to the extinction of many species like the salmon by flushing away their spawning gravels during the day and leaving them high and ironical at night. Riverbeds become scoured, stripped of their organic materials, sediment, vegetation, and macro-inver tebrates.(viii) Stopping fish MigrationFish passage is a concern with dams. Many fishes must move upriver and downstream to complete their lifecycles. Dams are often built without fish ladders. When fish ladders are provided, they seldom work as needed. If enough adult fishes do manage to climb above a dam, there remains the issue of their young how will they get back downstream? Predators kill many while they wander, lost, in the reservoir above the dam. Many are killed in their fall downward through the dam to the river below. They arent killed by the fall itself, but by the high levels of nitrogen gas at the base of the dam.There are many fishes that cannot climb dam ladders or leap over low dams. Some of these fishes swim upstream every year to breed, and and so let the water carry them back downstream. The eggs of pelagic spawners ball up downstream, too, which is why the adults must swim far upriver to breed. Otherwise, the baby fish would soon end up in sea.(ix) Social Imp acts of Dams Conflict with peopleThe most important social impact of a dam is version of people. The forced removal of people from their homes and the land by which they make a living has been the tragic consequence of dams. Although the people are offered resettlement, the situation leads to chemical decomposition reaction of self-identity and place-connection for both individuals and communities. The social connections are lost and the people find it wicked to recover a sense of belonging to both community and the physical environment that supports their existence. The major issues related to evokement are summarized belowEffectBiogeophysical impactsSocial impactsPrimary (direct)Flooding of reservoir wet diversion and hydrological changes dent compaction and pavingMountain top removal and stream creamReduction/depletion of minerals and speciesDeforestationCreation of barriers to species migrationEviction and resettlementLabour camps harm of resource due to construction and/or floodingSecondary (indirect)Landslide, flood, and earthquakes from damsWater quality declineS crude salinisationLoss (or gain) of fish and enragedlife populationsEcosystem changes leading to pestilence problems or indispositionAquifer disruption causing problems downstreamLoss of fish species leads to loss of migratory bird speciesLoss of access to resources and billetUnemployment with project completionPsychosocial stressesCreation of new identitiesUrbanization as labour camps become permanentUnsustainable agribusiness in resettlement area leading to priming erosionEthnic conflict due to resettlementThe inundation of the river vale has significant adverse social impacts by blocking access to natural and social resources of the river valley. This puts pressure on the ecosystem, as fewer resources are usable to serve the needs of the population located within the region. Increased opposition for greenly held resources, such as wild fruits and vegetables, timber, fodder and firewood, disrupts the subsistence routines of riverine populations. This has the impact of forcing people to forge in new areas that may be further from their homes in and/or in locations that are used by other groups for either similar or conflicting purposes.The dams also seriously affect humankind health through the pass out of disease. For instance, schistosomiasis and malaria proliferate in areas just about the still water of dam reservoirs. Beyond creating habitat for disease vectors, dams have been linked with the spread of non-communicable diseases like mercury poisoning. The increase in disease is also attributable to the influx of migratory workers during the time of dam construction. The overall social impact of a surge in disease in communities is to increase social malaise and to circumscribe livelihood opportunities.The process of displacement has affected most the weaker sections of the people in India. The scheduled tribes and circles and backward caste people c onstitute a large chunk of the displaced people. Women and children suffer the uttermost in any displacement. The conditions of people displaced by the various dams in the Narmada have attracted the attention of the Supreme Court of India, and it is observed that the measures at resettlement and in making provision for civic amenities in the new settlements are far below expectation.The total number of people displaced by dams is estimated to be 40 80 million throughout the world a lusty number of these people are Indians (the estimates vary, but the figure is likely to be around 4.4 million people). The people get compensation, but the process is often long-drawn, and sometimes, the actual sufferers are not getting true value for the losses incurred. These are inadequate when compared to the permanent loss of livelihood, and the social and mental exist of displacement.Large Dams in IndiaAt independence, in 1947, there were not more than 300 large dams in India. By 2000, the n umber grew to over 4000, more than half of them built between 1971 and 1989. India ranks third in the world in dam building after US and China. While some of these dams were built primarily for flood control, water supply, and hydroelectric power generation, the primary purpose of most Indian dams (96 percent) remains irrigation. In fact, large dam construction has been the main form of investment in irrigation undertaken by the Indian government. However, oft controversy has evoked since 1980s with the Sardar Sarovar stand on the Narmada when the people started postulation questions on the social, environmental, and economic costs of dams and their benefits.Most irrigation dams in India are embankment dams. They dwell of a wall built across a river to impound water forming a reservoir upstream and a system of spillways and gates to get around the wall to maintain normal flow and the impounded water flows to canals feeding agriculture fields downstream. People living in the ups tream catchment area, lose property and livelihood and gain very little, while people living in the command area (downstream) gain the most from irrigation.Between 1951 and 2000, Indias production of food grains increased fourfold, from 51 million tonnes to about 200 million tonnes resulting in considerable foreign exchange savings in food grains import, and making India a food grain surplus or at least self-sufficient country. About two thirds of this increase has been attributed to rise in irrigated areas, 35 % of which are irrigated by dams.Case StudiesThe world is building more dams every year. New dams promise more electricity and at the same time, they are devastating to others. A few case studies are briefly set forth belowThe Enawene Nawe, BrazilThe Enawene Nawe, a small Amazonian tribe (over 420) who live by fishing in Mato Grosso state, Brazil, is a relatively isolated people. They grow manioca and corn in gardens and gather forest products, like honey but fishing is the ir main livelihood and fish are a merry part of their diet, as they are one of the few tribes who eat no red meat. During the fishing season, the men build large dams across rivers and make pass several months camped in the forest, catching and smoking the fish which is then transported by canoe to their village.For decades, the Enawene Nawe has faced invasion of their lands by rubber tappers, diamond prospectors, kine ranchers and more recently soya planters Maggi, the largest soya company in Brazil, lawlessly built a road on their land in 1997 (this was later closed by a federal prosecutor). Although their territory was officially recognized and ratified by the government in 1996, a key area known as the Rio Preto was left out. This area is tremendously important to the Enawene Nawe both economically and spiritually this is where they build their fishing camps and dams, and where many important booze live.Now, up to 11 dams are planned along the Juruena River, which flows t hrough the Indians territory. The dams will be funded by a consortium of businesses, many of whom are involve in the soya industry. The Enawene Nawe is opposing the dams, and has launched an appeal for support to halt the construction.The Penan, MalaysiaIn 2008, a leaked map exposed the huge dam plans of the national electricity company in Sarawak, Malaysia. The local Penan people, who are familiar with destructive ruffle from outsiders, now face a new challenge to their land and livelihoods. Blueprints were accidentally posted on the internet for dams that will submerge homes and villages. To make matters worse, these dams are projected to produce far more electricity than Sarawak uses.The Borneo forestsThe island of Borneo, a breakable treasure house of rainforests, rare animals and plants, is under threat from plans for Chinese engineers to build 12 dams that will cut through virgin land and displace thousands of native Dayak people. The government of the Malaysian state of S arawak says the dams are the first stage of a corridor of renewable energy that will create 1.5 million jobs through industries powered by safe, clean hydro-electricity. Campaigners are furious but appear powerless in the face of a project they fear will compound the devastation wrecked on Borneos peoples and land by previous dam projects and the felling of its forests.They point to the ruin caused by the levelling of millions of acres of trees for oil cover plantations to meet the worlds demand for biofuels. The dams would slice across a vast get around of Sarawak, a place where wisps of cloud cling to remote, tree-clad peaks, huge butterflies flit through the foliage and orang-utans, sun bears and leopards roam.The Bakun dam, a separate project due to be completed by 2011, has already displaced an estimated 10,000 indigenous people, leading to bitter sound battles and a chorus of dismay from economists about cost overruns. For all that, it may be too late to save the natural bou nty of Borneo itself. orphaned orang-utans, piteously holding the outstr etc.ed hands of their human saviours, are the most conspicuous symbols of its fragility.Divided between Malaysia and Indonesia, with Brunei occupying a tiny enclave in the north, Borneos wealth have ensured its plunder. One reason is the voracious world demand for timber. The other is the biofuels made from ribbon oil. Almost half of Borneos rainforests have been cut down. devil million acres have vanished every year as trees are felled, the wood sold and the land turned over to oil palms. gigantic fires cast a perpetual pall of toxic haze, making Indonesia the worlds third largest greenhouse gas polluter after China and the United States. unripened gold, or palm oil, poses an even more insidious threat because it promises successfulness and development to the numerous poor of Borneo along with immense rewards for the elites. The vegetable oil comes from crushed palm husks. Long used for cooking, cosmetic s and soap, it has now become a principal source of biodiesel fuel.Malaysia and Indonesia produce about 85% of the worlds supply of palm oil most of it from Borneo. The price of this apparently environment-friendly fuel is high as the damages far outweigh the benefits. All over Sarawak, tribal people have lost their ancestral lands to similar gambits.The situation in IndiaBhakra-Nangal DamThis dam is situated in the town Bhakra in Punjab and is Asias biggest dam. The dam is built on the Sutlej River. It is 225.55 m high above sea level. The dam is 518.25 m long and 304.84 m broad. Its huge reservoir known as the Gobindh Sarovar, stores up to 9621 million cu m of water, enough to drain the whole of Chandigarh, parts of Haryana, Punjab and Delhi.It has 4 floodgates, which are fully functional during the period of floods, and also has 2 power- stations situated on either side of the dam. Each of the power plants comprise of 5 generators, and a power station. The total electricity prod uced in both the generators is 1325 MW.The Narmada River DamsThe Narmada River originates from the Maikal ranges at Amarkantak, 1057 m above the sea-level, now in Shahdol territorial dominion of Madhya Pradesh. The river flows for 1312 km through the three states of Madhya Pradesh (MP), Maharashtra and Gujarat before falling into the Arabian Sea. The valley has been the seat of an uninterrupted flow of human civilization from pre-historic times. The river has supported a variety of people and diverse socio-cultural practices ranging from the relatively autonomous adivasi (tribal) settlements in the forests to non-tribal countrified population.The Narmada basin extends over an area of 98,796km2 and lies between 720 32 E to 810 45 E and 21o 20 N to 23o 45 N. The basin covers large areas in the states of Madhya Pradesh (86%), Gujarat (14%) and a comparatively smaller area (2%) in Maharashtra. In the river course of 1,312km, there are 41 tributaries, out of which 22 are from the Satpu da range and the rest on the right bank are from the Vindhya range.The valley experiences extremes of hydrometeorological and climatic conditions with the swiftness catchment having an annual precipitation in the range of 1000mm to 1850mm and with half or even less than half in its lower regions (650mm-750mm) the diversity of vegetation from lush green in the upper region to ironical deciduous teak forest vegetation in the lower region is testimony to this feature.The Narmada basin is drought affected and a large part of North Gujarat, Saurashtra and Kutch constitute semi- desiccate or arid regions on account of extreme unreliability of rainfall, rendering them chronically drought prone and subject to serious drinking water problems. Teak and Indias outflank hardwood forests are found in the Narmada River basin and they are much older than the ones in the Himalayas. The lower Narmada River Valley and the surrounding uplands, covering an area of 169,900km2 consists of dry deciduo us forests. The natural vegetation of the region is a three-tiered forest. Tectona grandis is the paramount canopy tree, in association with Diospyros melanoxylon, Dhaora (Anogeissus latifolia), and Boswellia serrata. Riperian areas along the regions rivers and streams, which view year-round water, are home to moist evergreen forests. The e fondnessgion is home to 76 species of mammals and to 276 bird species none of which are endemic. According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), about 30% of the ecoregion is covered in relatively intact vegetation. The ecoregion includes some large blocks of habitat in the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. About 5% of the ecoregion lies within protected areas, including Bandhavgarh, Panna, and Sanjay bailiwick Parks.The valley has some of the important national parks and wild life sanctuaries. Kanha national park located in the upper reaches of Narmada, about 18km from Mandla, boasts of several wild animals including the Tiger. Two tributaries of Narma da, namley, Hallon and Banjar, flow through this park. It is one of the best National Parks of Asia, which has been described vividly by Rudyard Kipling in his famous creation Jungle Book. Satpura National Park, set up in 1981, is located in Hoshangabad district of Madhya Pradesh and covers an area of 524km2. Along with the adjoining Bori and Panchmarhi Sanctuaries, it constitutes an area of 1,427km2 of unique Central Indian Highland ecosystem. Satpura National Park, being part of a unique ecosystem, is very rich in biodiversity. The fauna comprises tiger, leopard, sambar, chital, bhedki, nilgai, four-horned antelope, chinkora, bison (gour), wild boar, wild dog, bear, black bear, black buck, fox, porcupine, flying, mouse deer, Indian joint squirrel etc. There are a variety of birds. Hornbills and peafowl are the common birds. The flora of the national park consists of mainly sal, teak, tendu, aonla, mohua, bel, bambo, and a variety of grasses and medicative plants.Madla plant Fossi l National park, Dindori National fogys park Ghughuya is situated in Din dori district of Madhya Pradesh in India. This national park has plants in fossil form that existed in India anywhere between 40 million and one hundred fifty million years ago spread over seven villages of Mandla regularize (Ghuguwa, Umaria, Deorakhurd, Barbaspur, Chanti-hills, Chargaon and Deori Kohani). The Mandla Plant Fossils National Park is an area that spreads over 274,100m2.The Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve covers part of three civil districts viz., Hoshangabad, Betul and Chhindwara of Madhya Pradesh. The total area is 4926.28km2. It envelops three wildlife conservation units viz., Bori asylum (518.00 km), Satpura National Park (524.37km2), and Pachmarhi Sanctuary (461.37km2). Satpura National Park comprises the core zone and the remaining area of 4,501.91km2, surrounding the core zone serves as buffer zone. The area comprises 511 villages. The area exhibits variety of geological rock and soil formati ons. There is a wide spectrum of floral and faunal features that occupy the Satpura conservation area. It is one of the oldest forest reserves, which has an established tradition of scientific management of forests. It constitutes a large contiguous forest block that harbours a community of plant and animal species typical of the central highland region.Of the 30 big dams proposed along the Narmada, Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) and Narmada Sagar Project (NSP) are the mega dams. The Maheshwar and Omkareshwar dams along with SSP and NSP, are to form a intricate which would ultimately cater to the needs of SSP. The struggle of the people of the Narmada valley against large dams began when the people to be displaced by SSP began organizing in 1985-86. Since then the struggle has spread to encompass other major dams in various stages of planning and construction chiefly Maheshwar, Narmada Sagar, Maan, Goi and Jobat. Tawa and Bargi Dams were completed in 1973 and 1989 respectively.Sardar Sarovar projectThe Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP) faced pie-eyed opposition from the people right from the planning stage. The Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save the Narmada movement) has been at the forfront of this opposition and at one time the NBA was successful in stopping World Bank funding for the project. A number of cases were filed against the project. However, the Supreme Court of India in 2000 issued a final ruling allowing construction to proceed. It is estimated that nearly 200,000 people would be displaced to construct the reservoir and a large number of people will lose land or livelihood due to project activities. A absolute majority of the displaced people are tribal people.Medha Patkar (born 1 December 1954 in Bombay) is the chip in of the Narmada Bachao Andolan and has vowed to work for the displaced people. She is one of Indias most important environmental activists. Her uncompromising wardrobe on the right to life and livelihood has brought to the fore the basic q uestions of natural resources, human rights, environment, and developm